Master's Thesis

The Impact of Web Accessibility Overlays on the Usability and User Experience for People with Permanent Visual Impairments

| Daniela Kubesch, MSc MSc

Double-Degree Master Thesis between the Salzburg University of Applied Sciences (degree program MultiMediaTechnology) and Halmstad University (degree program Digital Service Innovation). Supervised by Jakub Sypniewski, MSc and Maria Åkesson, MSc, PhD, Professor of Informatics.

References

  1. Aaron Bangor, Philip T. Kortum, and James T. Miller. 2008. "An Empirical Evaluation of the System Usability Scale." International Journal of Human–Computer Interaction 24 (6):574–594. doi:10.1080/10447310802205776.

  2. accessiBe. 2022. "Why we've raised $58 Million and how we are investing it." accessiBe. Accessed January 18, 2024. https://accessibe.com/blog/news/why-weve-raised-58-million-and-how-we-are-investing-it.

  3. AccessiWay. 2023. "Terms and Conditions of Use." AccessiWay. Accessed February 2, 2024. https://accessiway.com/terms-of-service.

  4. Adam, Alison, and David Kreps. 2006. "Web Accessibility: A Digital Divide for Disabled People?" In Social Inclusion: Societal and Organizational Implications for Information Systems, edited by Eileen M. Trauth, Debra Howcroft, Tom Butler, Brian Fitzgerald, and Janice I. DeGross, 217–228. Boston, MA: Springer US. ISBN: 978-0-387-34588-8.

  5. AFB. n.d. "Refreshable Braille Displays." American Foundation for the Blind (AFB). Accessed November 4, 2023. https://afb.org/node/16207/refreshable-braille-displays.

  6. Aizpurua, Amaia, Simon Harper, and Markel Vigo. 2016. "Exploring the relationship between web accessibility and user experience." International Journal of Human-Computer Studies 91:13–23. doi:10.1016/j.ijhcs.2016.03.008.

  7. Alonso, Fernando, José Fuertes, Ángel González Martínez, and Loïc Martínez Normand. 2010. "On the testability of WCAG 2.0 for beginners," 9. April. doi:10.1145/1805986.1806000.

  8. AudioEye. 2022a. "AudioEye Reports Record Second Quarter 2022 Results." AudioEye. Accessed April 10, 2023. https://audioeye.com/post/audioeye-reports-record-second-quarter-2022-results.

  9. AudioEye. 2022b. "Building for Digital Accessibility at Scale." AudioEye. Accessed November 5, 2023. https://audioeye.com/building-for-digital-accessibility-at-scale.

  10. Baldaszti, Erika, and Statistik Austria. 2016. "Menschen mit Beeinträchtigungen." Federal Ministry of Social Affairs, Health, Care and Consumer Protection Austria. Accessed November 2, 2023. https://statistik.at/fileadmin/user_upload/menschen_mit_beeintraechtigungen_2015.pdf.

  11. Bevan, Nigel, Jurek Kirakowski, and Jonathan Maissel. 1991. "What is Usability?" Proceedings of the 4th International Conference on HCI, Stuttgart (January).

  12. BFIT-Bund. 2023. "Gemeinsame Einschätzung der Überwachungsstellen des Bundes und der Länder für die Barrierefreiheit von Informationstechnik zum Einsatz von Overlay-Tools" [in German]. Federal Monitoring Centre for Accessibility of Information Technology (BFITBund). Accessed January 29, 2024. https://www.bfit-bund.de/DE/Publikation/einschaetzung-overlaytools.html.

  13. Blythe, Mark, A. Monk, C Overbeeke, and Peter Wright. 2003. "Funology: From Usability to Enjoyment" (January). doi:10.1007/1-4020-2967-5.

  14. Boyatzis, Richard E. 1998. Transforming Qualitative Information: Thematic Analysis and Code Development. 184. SAGE Publications Ltd. ISBN: 9780761909613.

  15. Braun, Virginia, and Victoria Clarke. 2012. "Thematic Analysis," 57–71. ISBN: 978-1-4338-1003-9.

  16. Brooke, John. 2013. "SUS: a retrospective." Journal of Usability Studies 8 (January): 29–40. doi:10.5555/2817912.2817913.

  17. Brulé, Emeline, Brianna J. Tomlinson, Oussama Metatla, Christophe Jouffrais, and Marcos Serrano. 2020. "Review of Quantitative Empirical Evaluations of Technology for People with Visual Impairments." In Proceedings of the 2020 CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems, 1–14. CHI'20. New York, NY, USA: Association for Computing Machinery. doi:10.1145/3313831.3376749.

  18. Budiu, Raluca. 2023. "Between-Subjects vs. Within-Subjects Study Design." Nielsen Norman Group. Accessed October 30, 2023. https://nngroup.com/articles/between-within-subjects.

  19. Byrne-Haber, Sheri. 2021. "The ADA lawsuit settlement involving an accessibility overlay." Medium. Last modified October 18, 2021. Accessed November 5, 2023. https://uxdesign.cc/important-settlement-in-an-ada-lawsuit-involving-an-accessibility-overlay-748a82850249.

  20. Campoverde-Molina, Milton, Sergio Luján-Mora, and Llorenç Valverde. 2021. "Process Model for Continuous Testing of Web Accessibility." IEEE Access 9:139576–139593. doi:10.1109/ACCESS.2021.3116100.

  21. Cane, David. 2023. "Task Aware Browsing: AI Assisted Web Access for Blind Users." ISSN:2330-4219.

  22. Cao, Shiya, and Eleanor T. Loiacono. 2019. "The State of the Awareness of Web Accessibility Guidelines of Student Website and App Developers." In Social Computing and Social Media. Design, Human Behavior and Analytics - 11th International Conference, SCSM 2019, Held as Part of the 21st HCI International Conference, HCII 2019, Orlando, FL, USA, July 26-31, 2019, Proceedings, Part I, edited by Gabriele Meiselwitz, 11578:32–42. Lecture Notes in Computer Science. Springer. doi:10.1007/978-3-030-21902-4_3.

  23. Ceci, Laura. 2024. "Share of global mobile website traffic 2015-2023." Statista. Accessed February 17, 2024. https://statista.com/statistics/277125/share-of-website-traffic-coming-from-mobile-devices.

  24. Cheng, Patricia W., Catherine M. Sandhofer, and Mimi Liljeholm. 2022. "Analytic Causal Knowledge for Constructing Useable Empirical Causal Knowledge: Two Experiments on Pre-schoolers." Cognitive Science 46 (5): e13137. doi:10.1111/cogs.13137.

  25. CRPD. 2008. "Article 9 – Accessibility." United Nations - Department of Economic and Social Affairs. Accessed March 22, 2023. https://un.org/development/desa/disabilities/convention-on-the-rights-of-persons-with-disabilities/article-9-accessibility.html.

  26. Desmet, Pieter, and Paul Hekkert. 2007. "Framework of Product Experience." International Journal of Design 1 (April): 57–66.

  27. DIAS. 2018. "The BITV-Test." BIK BITV-Test. Last modified February 12, 2022. Accessed November 25, 2023. https://bitvtest.eu.

  28. EDF. 2023. "Accessibility overlays do't guarantee compliance with European legislation." European Disability Forum (EDF). Accessed November 6, 2023. https://edf-feph.org/accessibility-overlays-dont-guarantee-compliance-witheuropean-legislation.

  29. Egger, Niklas, Gottfried Zimmermann, and Christophe Strobbe. 2022. "Overlay Tools as a Support for Accessible Websites – Possibilities and Limitations." In Computers Helping People with Special Needs, edited by Klaus Miesenberger, Georgios Kouroupetroglou, Katerina Mavrou, Roberto Manduchi, Mario Covarrubias Rodriguez, and Petr Penáz, 6–17. Cham: Springer International Publishing. ISBN: 978-3-031-08645-8.

  30. European Commission. n.d.(a). "Accessibility overlays." European Commission. Accessed January 18, 2024. https://commission.europa.eu/resources-partners/europa-web-guide/design-content-and-development/accessibility/testing-early-and-regularly/accessibility-overlays_en.

  31. European Commission. n.d.(b). "European accessibility act." European Commission. Accessed November 22, 2023. https://ec.europa.eu/social/main.jsp?catId=1202.

  32. European Commission. n.d.(c). "European Accessibility Act: Q&A." European Commission. Accessed April 12, 2023. https://ec.europa.eu/social/main.jsp?catId=1202&intPageId=5581&langId=en.

  33. European Council. 2022. "Infographic - Disability in the EU: facts and figures." European Council. Accessed November 2, 2023. https://consilium.europa.eu/en/infographics/disability-eu-facts-figures.

  34. European Union. 2019. "Directive (EU) 2019/882 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 17 April 2019 on the accessibility requirements for products and services (Text with EEA relevance)." EUR-Lex. Accessed November 22, 2023. https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX%3A32019L0882.

  35. Fable. 2023. "Accessible Usability Scale (AUS)." Fable. Accessed August 5, 2023. https://makeitfable.com/accessible-usability-scale.

  36. Faulkner, Steve, and David MacDonald. 2018. "Using ARIA." W3C Web Accessibility Initiative (WAI). Last modified September 27, 2018. Accessed November 25, 2023. https://w3.org/TR/using-aria.

  37. Federal Ministry of Justice Germany. 2011. "Verordnung zur Schaffung barrierefreier Informationstechnik nach dem Behindertengleichstellungsgesetz (Barrierefreie-InformationstechnikVerordnung - BITV 2.0)" [in German]. Federal Ministry of Justice Germany. Last modified October 24, 2023. Accessed November 25, 2023. https://www.gesetze-im-internet.de/bitv_2_0/BJNR184300011.html.

  38. Federal Statistical Office of Germany. 2021. "Zahlen & Fakten" [in German]. German Federation of the Blind and Partially Sighted (DBSV). Accessed November 2, 2023. https://dbsv.org/zahlen-fakten.html.

  39. Federal Statistical Office of Switzerland. 2017. "Behinderungen" [in German]. Federal Statistical Office of Switzerland. Accessed November 2, 2023. https://www.bfs.admin.ch/bfs/de/home/statistiken/gesundheit/gesundheitszustand/behinderungen.html.

  40. Feingold, Lainey. 2021. "Legal Update: Accessibility Overlay Edition." Law Office of Lainey Feingold. Last modified December 7, 2023. Accessed January 30, 2024. https://lflegal.com/2021/11/overlay-legal-update.

  41. Feingold, Lainey. 2022. "HR and Payroll Software Leader ADP to Enhance Product Accessibility." Law Office of Lainey Feingold. Last modified December 29, 2022. Accessed November 6, 2023. https://lflegal.com/2021/12/adp-settlement.

  42. Feingold, Lainey. 2023. "New Low in the Accessibility 'Industry' Overlay Company Sues GloballyRecognized Accessibility Expert." Law Office of Lainey Feingold. Accessed November 6, 2023. https://lflegal.com/2023/07/adrian-roselli-slapp-lawsuit.

  43. Fessenden, Therese. 2021. "Recruiting and Screening Candidates for User Research Projects." Nielsen Norman Group. Accessed May 5, 2023. https://nngroup.com/articles/recruiting-screening-research-candidates.

  44. Fessenden, Therese. 2022. "Obtaining Consent for User Research." Nielsen Norman Group. Accessed October 31, 2023. https://nngroup.com/articles/informed-consent.

  45. Fleck, Anna. 2023. "Googl's Chrome Has Taken Over the World." Statista. Accessed September 18, 2023. https://statista.com/chart/30734/browser-market-share-by-region.

  46. Forrest, Sam L., Carmel L. Mercado, Cyril M. Engmann, Andrew W. Stacey, Luxme Hariharan, Sadaf Khan, and Michelle T. Cabrera. 2023. "Does the Current Global Health Agenda Lack Vision?" Global Health: Science and Practice 11 (1). doi:10.9745/GHSP-D-22-00091.

  47. Gediga, Günther, Kai-Christoph Hamborg, and Duntsch. 1999. "The IsoMetrics Usability Inventory. An operationalisation of ISO 9241-10 supporting summative and formative evaluation of software systems." Behaviour and Information Technology 18 (May): 151–164. doi:10.1080/014492999119057.

  48. Girke, Detlef. 2022. "Interner BITV-Test des webbasierten Angebots Eye-Able, Version 1.11.140" [in German]. Germany.

  49. Gregor, Shirley, and Alan Hevner. 2013. "Positioning and Presenting Design Science Research for Maximum Impact." MIS Quarterly 37 (June): 337–356. doi:10.25300/MISQ/2013/37.2.01.

  50. Groves, Karl. 2021. "Overlay Fact Sheet." Overlay Fact Sheet. Last modified March 10, 2024. Accessed March 11, 2024. https://overlayfactsheet.com.

  51. Grue, Jan. 2016. "The problem with inspiration porn: a tentative definition and a provisional critique." Disability & Society 31 (6): 838–849. doi:10.1080/09687599.2016.1205473.

  52. Henry, Brad. 2020. "Accessibility Overlays in Digital Content." The Paciello Group Interactive (TPGi). Accessed April 10, 2023. https://tpgi.com/accessibility-overlays-in-digital-content.

  53. Henry, Shawn Lawton, ed. 2022a. "Introduction to Web Accessibility." W3C Web Accessibility Initiative (WAI). Last modified March 31, 2022. Accessed March 20, 2023. https://w3.org/WAI/fundamentals/accessibility-intro.

  54. Henry, Shawn Lawton. 2022b. "WCAG 2 Overview." W3C Web Accessibility Initiative (WAI). Last modified October 5, 2023. Accessed November 4, 2023. https://w3.org/WAI/standards-guidelines/wcag.

  55. Henry, Shawn Lawton. 2023. "WCAG 3 Introduction." W3C Web Accessibility Initiative (WAI). Last modified July 24, 2023. Accessed November 25, 2023. https://w3.org/WAI/standardsguidelines/wcag/wcag3-intro.

  56. Henry, Shawn Lawton, and Liam McGee, eds. 2018. "Accessibility." World Wide Web Consortium (W3C). Accessed March 22, 2023. https://w3.org/standards/webdesign/accessibility.

  57. Hirsch, Paul, and Daniel Levin. 1999. "Umbrella Advocates Versus Validity Police: A LifeCycle Model." Organization Science - ORGAN SCI 10 (April): 199–212. doi:10.1287/orsc.10.2.199.

  58. Huq, Syed Fatiul, Abdulaziz Alshayban, Ziyao He, and Sam Malek. 2023. "#A11yDev: Understanding Contemporary Software Accessibility Practices from Twitter Conversations." In Proceedings of the 2023 CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems. CHI'23. New York, NY, USA: Association for Computing Machinery. doi:10.1145/3544548.3581455.

  59. Huss, Nick. 2023. "How Many Websites Are There in the World?" Siteefy. Accessed November 4, 2023. https://siteefy.com/how-many-websites-are-there.

  60. Jackson, Liz, Alex Haagaard, and Rua Williams. 2022. "Disability Dongle." Platypus – The CASTAC Blog. Accessed April 10, 2023. https://blog.castac.org/2022/04/disability-dongle.

  61. Jason, Taylor. 2022. "6 ADA Web Accessibility Trends Revealed in our Mid-Year 2022 Report." UsableNet. Accessed November 6, 2023. https://blog.usablenet.com/6-ada-web-accessibility-trends-revealed-in-our-mid-year-report.

  62. Jiří, Mazurek, Cristina Pérez Rico, Carlos Fernández, Jean-Pierre Magnot, and Tristan Magnot. 2021. "The 5-Item Likert Scale and Percentage Scale Correspondence with Implications for the Use of Models with (Fuzzy) Linguistic Variables." Revista de Métodos Cuantitativos Para La Economía y La Empresa 31:3–16. doi:10.46661/REVMETODOSCUANTECONEMPRESA.4010.

  63. Kamps, Ingo, and Daniel Schetter. 2020. "Adblocker" [in German]. In Performance Marketing: Der Wegweiser zu einem mess- und steuerbaren Online-Marketing – Einführung in Instrumente, Methoden und Technik, 277–280. Wiesbaden: Springer Fachmedien Wiesbaden. doi:10.1007/978-3-658-30912-1_16.

  64. Kane, Shaun K., Meredith Ringel Morris, Annuska Z. Perkins, Daniel Wigdor, Richard E. Ladner, and Jacob O. Wobbrock. 2011. "Access overlays: improving non-visual access to large touch screens for blind users." In Proceedings of the 24th Annual ACM Symposium on User Interface Software and Technology, 273–282. UIST'11. Santa Barbara, California, USA: Association for Computing Machinery. doi:10.1145/2047196.2047232.

  65. Kohler, Tanner. 2023. "Challenges for Screen-Reader Users on Mobile." Nielsen Norman Group. Last modified April 30, 2023. Accessed November 26, 2023. https://nngroup.com/articles/screen-reader-users-on-mobile.

  66. Lazar, Jonathan, Jinjuan Feng, and Aaron Allen. 2006. "Determining the Impact of Computer Frustration on the Mood of Blind Users Browsing the Web." In Proceedings of the 8th International ACM SIGACCESS Conference on Computers and Accessibility, 149–156. Assets'06. New York, NY, USA: Association for Computing Machinery. doi:10.1145/1168987.1169013.

  67. Lemon Pulse. 2022. "Accessibility Overlay Facts Uncovered." Overlay Facts. Accessed November 10, 2023. https://overlayfacts.org/overlay-facts.

  68. Lewis, James. 2014. "Usability: Lessons Learned . . . and Yet to Be Learned." International Journal of Human-Computer Interaction 30 (September). doi:10.1080/10447318.2014.930311.

  69. Likert, Rensis. 1932. "A technique for the measurement of attitudes." Archives of Psychology 140 (22): 5–55.

  70. Loiacono, Eleanor T., and Soussan Djamasbi. 2013. "Corporate website accessibility: does legislation matter?" Universal Access in the Information Society 12 (1): 115–124. doi:10.1007/s10209-011-0269-1.

  71. Mack, Kelly, Emma McDonnell, Dhruv Jain, Lucy Lu Wang, Jon E. Froehlich, and Leah Findlater. 2021. "What Do We Mean by 'Accessibility Researc'? A Literature Survey of Accessibility Papers in CHI and ASSETS from 1994 to 2019." In Proceedings of the 2021 CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems. CHI'21. New York, NY, USA: Association for Computing Machinery. doi:10.1145/3411764.3445412.

  72. McLeod, Jane D. 2023. "Invisible Disabilities and Inequality." Social Psychology Quarterly 86(1): 6–29. doi:10.1177/01902725231153307.

  73. Microsoft. 2016. "Inclusive Design." Microsoft. Accessed April 26, 2023. https://microsoft.com/design/inclusive.

  74. Min Htike, Hein, Tom H. Margrain, Yu-Kun Lai, and Parisa Eslambolchilar. 2021. "Augmented Reality Glasses as an Orientation and Mobility Aid for People with Low Vision: a Feasibility Study of Experiences and Requirements." In Proceedings of the 2021 CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems. CHI'21. New York, NY, USA: Association for Computing Machinery. doi:10.1145/3411764.3445327.

  75. Ming, Joy, Sharon Heung, Shiri Azenkot, and Aditya Vashistha. 2021. "Accept or Address? Researcher' Perspectives on Response Bias in Accessibility Research," 1–13. October. doi:10.1145/3441852.3471216.

  76. Montoya, Amanda K. 2023. "Selecting a Within- or Between-Subject Design for Mediation: Validity, Causality, and Statistical Power." Multivariate Behavioral Research 58 (3): 616–636. doi:10.1080/00273171.2022.2077287.

  77. Moran, Kate. 2018. "Writing Tasks for Quantitative and Qualitative Usability Studies." Nielsen Norman Group. Accessed October 31, 2023. https://nngroup.com/articles/test-tasks-quant-qualitative.

  78. Murphy, Emma, Ravi Kuber, Graham McAllister, Philip Strain, and Wai Yu. 2008. "An empirical investigation into the difficulties experienced by visually impaired Internet users," 7:79–91. 1. doi:10.1007/s10209-007-0098-4.

  79. Myers, Michael D., and John R. Venable. 2014. "A set of ethical principles for Design Science Research in Information Systems." Information & Management 51 (6): 801–809. doi:10.1016/j.im.2014.01.002.

  80. National Council Austria. 2004. "Federal Act on Provisions Facilitating Electronic Communications with Public Bodies." Federal Chancellery. Last modified September 23, 2022. Accessed November 22, 2023. https://ris.bka.gv.at/Dokument.wxe?Abfrage=Erv&Dokumentnummer=ERV_2004_1_10.

  81. National Council Austria. 2023. "Regierungsvorlage: Bundes(verfassungs)gesetz" [in German]. Austrian Parliament. Accessed November 22, 2023. https://parlament.gv.at/gegenstand/XXVII/I/2046.

  82. National Eye Institite. 2022. "Refractive Errors." National Eye Institite of the National Institutes of Health (NIH). Accessed November 2, 2023. https://nei.nih.gov/learn-about-eye-health/eye-conditions-and-diseases/refractive-errors.

  83. National Eye Institite. 2023. "Cataracts." National Eye Institite of the National Institutes of Health (NIH). Accessed November 2, 2023. https://nei.nih.gov/learn-about-eye-health/eye-conditions-and-diseases/cataracts.

  84. NFB. 2021. "2021 Resolutions." National Federation of the Blind (NFB). Accessed November 26, 2023. https://nfb.org/resources/speeches-and-reports/resolutions/2021-resolutions%5C#17.

  85. Nielsen, Jakob. 2012. "How Many Test Users in a Usability Study?" Nielsen Norman Group. Accessed October 31, 2023. https://nngroup.com/articles/how-many-test-users.

  86. Nikou, Stavros A., and Anastasios A. Economides. 2019. "A comparative study between a computer-based and a mobile-based assessment: Usability and user experience." Interactive technology and smart education (Bingley) 16 (4): 381–391. ISSN: 1741-5659. doi:10.1108/ITSE-01-2019-0003.

  87. Nuñez, Almendra, Arturo Moquillaza, and Freddy Paz. 2019. "Web Accessibility Evaluation Methods: A Systematic Review." In Design, User Experience, and Usability. Practice and Case Studies, edited by Aaron Marcus and Wentao Wang, 226–237. Cham: Springer International Publishing. doi:10.1007/978-3-030-23535-2_17.

  88. Nurthen, James, Michael Cooper, and Shawn Lawton Henry. 2006. "WAI-ARIA Overview." W3C Web Accessibility Initiative (WAI). Last modified May 19, 2022. Accessed November 25, 2023. https://w3.org/WAI/standards-guidelines/aria.

  89. Persson, Hans, Henrik Åhman, Alexander Arvei Yngling, and Jan Gulliksen. 2015. "Universal design, inclusive design, accessible design, design for all: different concepts — one goal? On the concept of accessibility — historical, methodological and philosophical aspects." Universal Access in the Information Society 14 (4): 505–526. doi:10.1007/s10209-014-0358-z.

  90. Piccinno, Antonio, Aleksander Bai, Viktoria Stray, and Heidi Mork. 2019. "What Methods Software Teams Prefer When Testing Web Accessibility." Hindawi. doi:10.1155/2019/3271475.

  91. Potluri, Venkatesh, Tadashi E Grindeland, Jon E. Froehlich, and Jennifer Mankoff. 2021. "Examining Visual Semantic Understanding in Blind and Low-Vision Technology Users." In Proceedings of the 2021 CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems. CHI'21., Yokohama, Japan, Association for Computing Machinery. doi:10.1145/3411764.3445040.

  92. Power, Christopher, André Freire, Helen Petrie, and David Swallow. 2012. "Guidelines Are Only Half of the Story: Accessibility Problems Encountered by Blind Users on the Web." In Proceedings of the SIGCHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems, 433–442. CHI'12. Austin, Texas, USA: Association for Computing Machinery. doi:10.1145/2207676.2207736.

  93. Retief, Marno, and Rantoa Letšosa. 2018. "Models of disability: A brief overview." HTS Teologiese Studies/Theological Studies 71 (1). doi:10.4102/hts.v74i1.4738.

  94. Richter, Michael, and Markus D. Flückiger. 2013. "Rückblick" [in German]. In Usability Engineering kompakt: Benutzbare Produkte gezielt entwickeln, 149–153. Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer Berlin Heidelberg. doi:10.1007/978-3-642-34832-7_7.

  95. Roselli, Adrian. 2023. "#AudioEye Is Suing Me." Adrian Roselli. Last modified July 6, 2023. Accessed November 6, 2023. https://adrianroselli.com/2023/05/audioeye-is-suing-me.html.

  96. Roselli, Adrian. 2024. "#AudioEye Has Dropped Its Suit Against Me." Adrian Roselli. Last modified January 3, 2024. Accessed January 23, 2024. https://adrianroselli.com/2024/01/audioeye-has-dropped-its-suit-against-me.html.

  97. Salazar, Kim. 2020. "Contextual Inquiry: Inspire Design by Observing and Interviewing Users in Their Context." Nielsen Norman Group. Accessed August 5, 2023. https://nngroup.com/articles/contextual-inquiry.

  98. Sarodnick, Florian, and Henning Brau. 2006. Methoden der Usability Evaluation: Wissenschaftliche Grundlagen und praktische Anwendung [in German]. January. ISBN: 9783456842004, 3456842007.

  99. Sauer, Juergen, Andreas Sonderegger, and Sven Schmutz. 2020. "Usability, user experience and accessibility: towards an integrative model." Ergonomics 63 (10): 1207–1220. doi:10.1080/00140139.2020.1774080.

  100. Schmutz, Sven, Andreas Sonderegger, and Juergen Sauer. 2016. "Implementing Recommendations From Web Accessibility Guidelines: Would They Also Provide Benefits to Nondisabled Users." Human Factors 58 (4): 611–629. doi:10.1177/0018720816640962.

  101. Shackel, B. 1981. Man-computer Interaction: Human Factors Aspects of Computers & People. NATO ASI series: Series E : applied sciences. Springer. ISBN: 9789028609105.

  102. Sharif, Ather, Aedan Liam McCall, and Kianna Roces Bolante. 2022. "Should I Say 'Disabled Peopl' or 'People with Disabilities'? Language Preferences of Disabled People Between Identity- and Person-First Language." In Proceedings of the 24th International ACM SIGACCESS Conference on Computers and Accessibility. ASSETS'22. Athens, Greece: Association for Computing Machinery. doi:10.1145/3517428.3544813.

  103. Spalding, Thomas L., and Brian H. Ross. 1994. "Comparison-based learning: Effects of comparing instances during category learning." Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition 20, no. 6 (November): 1251–1263. doi:10.1037/0278-7393.20.6.1251.

  104. Statista. 2023. "Adblocking penetration rate in selected countries/territories worldwide as of 3rd quarter 2022." Statista. Accessed November 24, 2023. https://statista.com/statistics/351862/adblocking-usage.

  105. Statista. 2024. "Number of internet and social media users worldwide as of January 2024." Statista. Accessed February 5, 2024. https://statista.com/statistics/617136/digital-population-worldwide.

  106. Swedish Government. 2008. "Discrimination Act, 2008:567." Diskriminerings ombudsmannen. Last modified March 3, 2023. Accessed November 22, 2023. https://do.se/choose-language/english/discrimination-act-2008567.

  107. Tavakol, Mohsen, and Reg Dennick. 2011. "Making sense of Cronbac's alpha." International Journal of Medical Education 2:53–55. doi:10.5116/ijme.4dfb.8dfd.

  108. Taylor, Jason. 2020. "A record-breaking year for ADA digital accessibility lawsuits." UsableNet. Accessed April 10, 2023. https://blog.usablenet.com/a-record-breaking-year-for-ada-digital-accessibility-lawsuits.

  109. Taylor, Jason. 2021. "2021 year end report – app & web accessibility lawsuits break record." UsableNet. Accessed April 10, 2023. https://blog.usablenet.com/2021-lawsuit-report-trends-and-findings.

  110. Technical Committee ISO/TC 159 and Subcommittee SC 4. 2010. ISO 9241-210:2010, Ergonomics of human-system interaction — Part 210: Humancentred design for interactive systems. International Standard. International Organization for Standardization (ISO).

  111. Technical Committee ISO/TC 159 and Subcommittee SC 4. 2018. ISO 9241-11:2018, Ergonomics of human-system interaction — Part 11: Usability: Definitions and concepts. International Standard. International Organization for Standardization (ISO).

  112. Technical Committee ISO/TC 159 and Subcommittee SC 4. 2019. ISO 9241-210:2019, Ergonomics of human-system interaction — Part 210: Human-centred design for interactive systems. International Standard. International Organization for Standardization (ISO).

  113. Theofanos, Mary Frances, and Janice (Ginny) Redish. 2003. "Bridging the Gap: Between Accessibility and Usability." Interactions (New York, NY, USA) 10, no. 6 (November): 36–51. doi:10.1145/947226.947227.

  114. Thoo, Yong-Joon, Maximiliano Jeanneret Medina, Jon E. Froehlich, Nicolas Ruffieux, and Denis Lalanne. 2023. "A Large-Scale Mixed-Methods Analysis of Blind and Low-vision Research in ACM and IEEE." In Proceedings of the 25th International ACM SIGACCESS Conference on Computers and Accessibility. ASSETS'23. New York, NY, USA: Association for Computing Machinery. doi:10.1145/3597638.3608412.

  115. Tractinsky, Noam. 2017. "The Usability Construct: A Dead End?" Human-Computer Interaction 33 (May): 1–47. doi:10.1080/07370024.2017.1298038.

  116. Trewin, Shari, Diogo Marques, and Tiago Guerreiro. 2015. "Usage of Subjective Scales in Accessibility Research." October. doi:10.1145/2700648.2809867.

  117. U.S. Congress. 2008. "Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990, As Amended." U.S. Department of Justice - Civil Rights Division. Accessed November 22, 2023. https://ada.gov/law-and-regs/ada.

  118. UPIAS. 1976. "Fundamental Principles of Disability." Union of the Physically Impaired Against Segregation (UPIAS).

  119. Urman, Aleksandra, and Mykola Makhortykh. 2023. "You are how (and where) you search? Comparative analysis of web search behavior using web tracking data." Journal of Computational Social Science (May). doi:10.1007/s42001-023-00208-9.

  120. UsableNet. 2023. "2023 Midyear Report on Digital Accessibility Lawsuits." UsableNet. Accessed November 6, 2023. https://info.usablenet.com/2023-midyear-digital-accessibility-lawsuit-report-pdf-download-plain-text.

  121. UserWay. 2022. "UserWay Stock Rockets Upward After IPO Completion." UserWay. Accessed April 10, 2023. https://userway.org/blog/userway-stock-rockets-upward-after-ipo-completion.

  122. Vermeeren, APOS, J Kort, AHM Cremers, and JE Fokker. 2008. "Comparing UX measurements, a case study." In Proceedings of the COST294-workshop on meaningful measures: valid useful user experience measurement, VUUM2008, edited by ELC Law, N Bevan, G Christou, M Springett, and M Lárusdóttir, 72–78. Institute of Research in Informatics of Toulouse (IRIT). ISBN: 978-2-917490-02-0.

  123. Vollenwyder, Beat, Glena H. Iten, Florian Brühlmann, Klaus Opwis, and Elisa D. Mekler. 2018. "Salient beliefs influencing the intention to consider Web Accessibility." Computers in Human Behavior 92:352–360. doi:10.1016/j.chb.2018.11.016.

  124. W3C. 1997. "World Wide Web Consortium Launches International Program Office for Web Accessibility Initiative." World Wide Web Consortium (W3C). Accessed November 6, 2023. https://w3.org/press-releases/1997/ipo-announce.

  125. WACA. 2023. "Accessibility Widgets und Overlays" [in German]. Web Accessibility Certificate Austria (WACA) Association for the Promotion of Accessibility in Information and Communication Technology. Accessed January 30, 2024. https://waca.at/accessibility-widgets-und-overlays.

  126. WAI. 2020. "Web Content Accessibility Guidelines (WCAG) 2 Level AA Conformance." W3C Web Accessibility Initiative (WAI). Last modified July 13, 2020. Accessed November 25, 2023. https://w3.org/WAI/WCAG2AA-Conformance.

  127. WAI. 2022. "WCAG 2.1." World Wide Web Consortium (W3C). Last modified September 21, 2023. Accessed November 4, 2023. https://w3.org/TR/WCAG21.

  128. Web Almanac. 2022. "HTTP Archiv's annual state of the web report." Web Almanac by HTTP Archive. Accessed April 10, 2023. https://almanac.httparchive.org/en/2022.

  129. WebAim. 2018. "Survey of Users with Low Vision #2 Results." WebAim. Accessed November 3, 2023. https://webaim.org/projects/lowvisionsurvey2.

  130. WebAim. 2021a. "Screen Reader User Survey #9 Results." WebAim. Accessed November 3, 2023. https://webaim.org/projects/screenreadersurvey9.

  131. WebAim. 2021b. "Survey of Web Accessibility Practitioners #3 Results." WebAim. Accessed April 10, 2023. https://webaim.org/projects/practitionersurvey3.

  132. WebAim. 2023. "The WebAIM Million." WebAim. Accessed November 3, 2023. https://webaim.org/projects/million.

  133. WHO. 2019. "World report on vision." World Health Organization (WHO). Accessed February 14, 2024. https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/9789241516570.

  134. WHO. 2023a. "Assistive technology." WHO. Accessed February 5, 2024. https://who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/assistive-technology.

  135. WHO. 2023b. "Blindness and vision impairment." WHO. Accessed November 2, 2023. https://who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/blindness-and-visual-impairment.

  136. WHO. 2023c. "Disability." WHO. Accessed November 2, 2023. https://who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/disability-and-health.

  137. WHO. 2023d. "Noncommunicable diseases." WHO. Accessed November 2, 2023. https://who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/noncommunicable-diseases.

  138. Wille, Kathrin, Reiner R. Dumke, and Cornelius Wille. 2016. "Measuring the Accessability Based on Web Content Accessibility Guidelines." In 2016 Joint Conference of the International Workshop on Software Measurement and the International Conference on Software Process and Product Measurement (IWSM-MENSURA), 164–169. doi:10.1109/IWSM-Mensura.2016.032.

  139. Zahra, Shadi Abou, and Judy Brewer, eds. 2017. "Diverse Abilities and Barriers." WAI. Last modified May 15, 2017. Accessed April 26, 2023. https://w3.org/WAI/peopleuse-web/abilities-barriers.